The following list discusses words that present a variety of problems to writers. Reviewing it from time to time will keep you alert to possible usage issues in your own writing.
aggravate Aggravate is used chiefly in two meanings: "to make worse" ("aggravated her shoulder injury," "Their financial condition was aggravated by the fall of the stock market") and "to irritate, annoy" ("The president was aggravated by the Russians' response"), but the latter is rarely seen in writing. However, aggravation usually means "irritation," and aggravating almost always expresses annoyance.
ain't Ain't is avoided in formal writing. But it is widely used in ordinary speech and writing to catch attention and to emphasize ("The fact is, he just ain't going to cooperate"). It often occurs in standard phrases ("If it ain't broke, don't fix it"), and it's used among friends in relaxed conversation ("I ain't gettin' any younger," "There ain't a chance of getting tickets tonight").
amount, number Number is normally used with nouns that can form a plural and can be used with a numeral ("a large number of orders"). Amount is mainly used with nouns that denote a substance or concept that can't be divided and counted up ("the annual amount of rainfall," "a large amount of money"). The use of amount with count nouns ("a substantial amount of job offers") is usually regarded as an error.
apt, liable, likely Both liable and apt, when followed by an infinitive, are used nearly interchangeably with likely ("liable to get tired easily," "The roads are apt to be slippery," "It's likely to be hot tomorrow"). In writing, liable is generally used only for situations risking an undesirable outcome ("If you speed, you're liable to be caught").
as, as if, like Like has been used as a conjunction in the sense of as ("just like I used to do") and as if ("It looks like it will rain") for nearly 600 years. However, these uses are often criticized, and it is safer to use as or as if instead ("just as I used to do," "It looks as if it will rain").
as far as "As far as clothes, young people always know best" is an example of as far as used as a preposition, with the meaning "as for" or "regarding." This use, which developed from the traditional conjunction use ("As far as clothes are concerned, . . ."); is very common in speech but is usually regarded as an error in writing.
awful, awfully Awful has long been acceptable in the meanings "extremely objectionable" ("What an awful color") and "exceedingly great" ("an awful lot of money") in speech and casual writing. Both awful and awfully are used as intensifiers in informal speech and writing ("I'm awful tired," "He's awfully rich") but are rare in more formal contexts.
between, among It is often said that between can only be used when dealing with two items ("between the two trees"), and that among must be used for three or more items ("strife among Croats, Serbs, and Muslims"). However, between is actually quite acceptable in these latter cases, especially when it applies to one-to-one relationships ("constant disagreements between the three of us").
but There is no reason why sentences should not begin with but ("But now we come to the difficult part"). But, as a preposition with the meaning "except," may be followed by a pronoun in the either the nominative or the objective case ("No one but I [me] could solve the puzzle"), but the objective case is always used when it is part of a noun phrase serving as an object ("He looked at everyone but her"). A less common use of but is as an adverb meaning "only" ("Had they but known, they could have saved themselves").
can, may Can, unlike may, is used to indicate the power to do something ("He can lift 200 pounds"). To denote possibility, both can and may are used ("The problem can [may] be solved in two different ways"). To denote permission to do something, can is common in informal speech ("She's told her kids they can stay up till 10:00 tonight"), but may is preferred in writing. However, in negative statements, cannot and can't are more common than may not ("The generals can't act unless the president tells them to").
comprise The sense of comprise meaning "to compose or constitute" ("the branches that comprise our government") rather than "to include or be made up of" ("Our government comprises various branches") has been attacked as wrong, for reasons that are unclear. Until recently, it was used chiefly in scientific and technical writing; today it has become the most widely used sense. But it still may be safer to use compose or make up instead.
data Data today has a meaning independent of its use as the plural form of datum. It is used in one of two ways: as a plural noun (like earnings) that takes a plural verb and plural modifiers (such as these or many) but not cardinal numbers ("These data show that the recession ended in March"); or as an abstract mass noun (like information) that takes a singular verb and singular modifiers such as this, much, or little ("The data on the subject is plentiful"). Both constructions are standard, but the plural form is more common in print. Avoid using signs of the singular (like this or much) when you use a plural verb.
different from, different than Both of these phrases are standard; however, some people dislike different than and will insist that, for example, "different than the old proposal" be changed to "different from the old proposal." Different than works best when a clause follows ("very different in size than it was two years ago").
disinterested, uninterested Disinterested has two meanings: "unbiased" ("They chose a disinterested observer to serve as a judge") and "not interested" ("She seems completely disinterested in the whole idea"), which is also the basic meaning of uninterested. Though this second use of disinterested is common, it is often criticized, and uninterested can always be substituted.
due to When the due of due to is clearly an adjective ("absences due to the flu"), no one complains about the phrase. When due to is used as a preposition ("Due to the holiday, our office will be closed"), some people object, so in formal writing an alternative such as because of or owing to may be safer.
each Each presents several problems of agreement with verbs and pronouns. When the pronoun each is the subject, it normally takes a singular verb ("Each is unique"). When the adjective each modifies a singular noun subject, the singular verb is used ("Each car is equipped with radar"). Each of is followed by a plural noun or pronoun ("Each of the kittens was given to a different family," "Each of us asked one question"). When the adjective each follows a plural noun subject, a plural verb and plural pronoun commonly follow ("We each have our own concerns"). Each often takes a plural pronoun in reference, sometimes to avoid saying "his or her" ("Each person in the line had to show their ticket").
each other, one another The traditional rules call for each other to be used when referring to two ("The two girls looked at each other in surprise") and one another to be used when referring to three or more ("There will be time for people to talk with one another after the meeting"). In fact, however, they are employed interchangeably.
either Either as an adjective meaning "each (of two)" is still in common use ("a path lined with large trees on either side"). In either . . . or constructions, either should be placed where it will provide parallelism; thus, rather than "The gift will be donated either to the college or the public library" should ideally be rewritten as "The gift will be donated either to the college or to the public library" or "The gift will be donated to either the college or the public library." The verb following an either . . . or construction is normally singular ("Either the car or the truck is fine"). However, when both subjects are plural, or when the first is singular and the second is plural, a plural verb is expected ("Either Maria or her parents have the keys").
every Since every normally modifies a singular noun, a singular verb usually follows ("Every page contains important new information"). When every modifies two or more nouns joined by and, the singular verb is standard ("Every man, woman, and child is going to benefit"). Every is usually followed by a singular pronoun ("Every girl at the school knows she's got to do as well as the boys," "Every dish had its proper place on the shelf"). But it may also be followed by a plural pronoun; in particular, the plural pronoun is almost always used today when the gender of the subject is unknown or mixed ("Every student was asked to write their essay on something different").
good, well Both good and well are acceptable when used to express good health ("I feel good," "I feel well"), and good may also connote good spirits ("She felt good about her performance"). However, the adverb good has been much criticized, with people insisting that well be used instead ("The orchestra played well this evening"), and this adverbial use should be avoided in writing.
he, he or she It used to be standard to use he to mean "he or she" ("Today every customer thinks he can get a better deal somewhere else"). Today this is avoided, since it seems to ignore the existence of women. Since "he or she," when repeated within a sentence or paragraph, can easily sound awkward, writers can usually rewrite their sentences to avoid it: by putting the pronouns in the plural ("All students should hand in their papers by Friday"), by addressing the reader directly ("You should hand in your paper[s] by Friday"), or by removing the pronoun altogether, perhaps by using passive voice ("All papers should be handed in by Friday"). Similar methods can be done to avoid repeating him or her, his or her, and himself or herself.
hopefully When used to mean "I hope" or "We hope" ("Hopefully, they'll reach an agreement"), as opposed to "full of hope" ("waiting hopefully for good news"), hopefully is often criticized, even though other similar sentence adverbs (such as frankly, clearly, and interestingly) are accepted by everyone. Despite the objections, this sense of hopefully is now standard and can be used freely.
I, me In formal speech and writing, such phrases as "It's me," "Susan is taller than me," "He's as old as me," "Who, me?" and "Me too" are generally accepted. In formal writing, however, it is best to use I after forms of be ("It was I who discovered the mistake") and after as and than when the first term of the comparison is the sentence's subject ("The analysts knew less than I," "Almost any college graduate could do as well as I").
i.e., e.g. These two abbreviations are sometimes confused with each other. To avoid confusion, try to remember that i.e. stands for the Latin id est, meaning "that is," and e.g. stands for exempli gratia, or "for example." Both that is and i.e. typically introduce a rewording or clarification of an immediately preceding statement or word ("the country's largest industry—i.e., steel"). Both for example and e.g. introduce one or more examples that illustrate something just mentioned ("Let's consider some of the country's largest industries—e.g., oil, banking, and steel"). In American (but not British) writing, both i.e. and e.g. are normally followed by a comma.
if Both if and whether are commonly used with such verbs as doubt, see, ask, wonder, decide, and know to introduce a noun clause ("See if they have arrived," "He asked her whether she was feeling better"); both are acceptable even in formal contexts. The use of if to mean "though" ("an interesting if questionable idea") is also common and proper. If is often followed by a subjunctive verb, especially when the clause contains a condition that is clearly hypothetical or contrary to fact ("If we could foresee the future, life would be a lot easier"). The indicative is required when the clause is clearly not hypothetical ("If he knew those facts at the time, then he's guilty of lying").
impact Impact as a verb meaning "to have an impact" came into widespread use only in the 1980s, and it is still often criticized, though it remains common in business, journalism, and politics ("worried about how this would impact our sales"). In other writing, another verb such as affect, influence, impinge on, or hit can usually be substituted.
imply, infer Infer is mostly used to mean "to conclude" and is commonly followed by from ("I infer from your comments that . . ."). Imply is used to mean "to suggest" ("The letter implies that our service was not satisfactory"). The use of infer, with a personal subject, as a synonym of imply ("Are you inferring that I made a mistake?") is best avoided.
in, into The basic distinction between these two prepositions is clear: into is used with verbs of motion ("moving into the light," "backed into a parked car"), and in is used with verbs that show location ("found the letter in the folder," "hid it in the closet"). However, in is also used idiomatically with some verbs of motion ("the tree had been split in two," "told the kids to jump in the car"), and in some cases either one may be used ("put the names into [in] the hat," "don't go in [into] the kitchen yet"). In more formal writing, however, the traditional distinction is usually observed.
irregardless Irregardless, though common in speech, is still far from being generally accepted; use regardless or irrespective instead ("They're in favor of the project, regardless of the cost").
lay, lie Though these two words have long been used as synonyms, today they are usually distinguished, especially in writing. Lay is normally transitive ("He laid down the book"), and lie is normally intransitive ("She was lying on the bed"). But they are very easy to confuse, especially because of the similar forms of their past tenses (laid, lay) and past participles (laid, lain).
less, fewer The traditional view is that less is used for matters of degree, value, or amount, and that it modifies nouns that refer to uncountable things ("less concern," "less clothing") while fewer modifies numbers and plural nouns ("fewer students," "fewer than eight trees"). However, less is actually more likely than fewer to modify plural nouns when distances, sums of money, and certain common phrases are involved ("less than 100 miles," "less than $2,000," "ten pounds, more or less") and just as likely to modify periods of time ("in less [fewer] than four hours"). But phrases such as "less bills," "less vacation days," and "less computers" should be avoided.
like, such as Though sometimes criticized, it is completely permissible to write "cities like Chicago and Des Moines." It is equally proper and slightly more formal to write "cities such as Chicago and Des Moines" or "such cities as Chicago and Des Moines."
loan Some people still object to the use of loan as a verb ("loaned me the book") and insist on lend. Nevertheless, loan is in standard use. Loan is used only literally ("loans large sums of money"), however, while lend can be used both literally ("lends large sums of money") and figuratively ("lending his parents some help when he could").
media Media is the plural of medium. In references to the mass media today, media is often used as a singular mass noun ("The media always wants a story"). But this singular use is not as common as the similar use of data, and you may want to keep media plural in your writing ("The news media have ignored the story").
myself Myself is often used in place of I or me: as subject ("Others and myself continued to express our concern"); after as, than, or like ("paying such people as myself to teach," "Other than myself, only two volunteers showed up," "A man like myself worries about these things"); and as object ("For both my wife and myself, it was a great trip"). It is often used when the person is referring to himself or herself as an object of discussion. Though these uses have been criticized, they are entirely standard.
one Using one in place of another personal pronoun (I, me, you) or to indicate a generic individual produces a formal effect ("not as helpful as one might wish," "This might strike one as a clever solution"). As a substitute for I or me, it is far more common in British English than American English.
people, persons People is commonly used when referring to an unspecified number of individuals ("People everywhere are talking about the new show"), and persons is commonly used when a definite number is specified ("reported that 86 persons were still missing"). However, the use of people where numbers are mentioned is also acceptable and much less formal ("The police questioned ten people").
per Per, meaning "for each," is most commonly used with figures, usually in relation to price ("$400 per performance"), vehicles ("25 miles per gallon," "55 miles per hour"), or sports ("15 points per game"). Avoid inserting words like a or each between per and the word or words it modifies, producing sentences like "She could type 70 words per each minute."
plus The use of plus to mean "and" ("a hamburger plus french fries for lunch") or "besides which" ("We would have been on time, but we lost the car keys. Plus, we forgot the map") is quite informal and is avoided in writing.
presently The use of presently to mean "at the present time" ("I'm presently writing a report") rather than "soon" ("He'll be with you presently"), while often criticized, is standard and acceptable.
pretty Pretty, when used as an adverb to tone down or moderate a statement ("pretty cold weather"), is avoided in formal writing, so using it in correspondence will lend an informal tone.
prior to Prior to, a synonym of before, most often appears in fairly formal contexts. It is especially useful in suggesting anticipation ("Prior to the meeting, everyone on the committee had studied the report").
proved, proven Both proved and proven are past participles of prove. Proved was once more common than proven, but today they are about equally common. As a past participle, either is acceptable ("a drug that has been proved [proven] effective"), but proven is more frequent as an adjective ("proven gas reserves").
providing, provided Although providing in the sense of "if" or "on condition that" has occasionally been disapproved, both providing and provided are in common and accepted use ("providing [provided] he finds a buyer").
real The adverb real is used interchangeably with really only as an intensifier ("a real tough job"). This use is very common in speech and casual writing, but you should not use it in anything more formal.
set, sit Set generally takes an object ("Set the lamp over there") and sit does not ("sat for an hour in the doctor's office"). But in a few cases, set lacks an object ("The sun will set soon") and sit takes an object ("She sat the child down by its grandfather").
shall, will Shall and will are generally interchangeable today in American English, but shall is often regarded as somewhat affected, and will is much more common. However, shall is more appropriate in questions to express simple choice ("Shall we go now?"), because will in such a context suggests prediction ("Will the report be ready next week?").
since The conjunction since, when used to mean "because," can occasionally create ambiguity when both this "because" sense and the alternative "from the time when" sense are meaningful in the same context ("Since the cold weather had started, he had been thinking about the expense of heating his house"). But there usually is no ambiguity ("Since it was raining, she took an umbrella") and thus no reason to avoid it.
slow, slowly Slow used as an adverb (meaning "slowly") has often been called an error, though it has been common for centuries. Slow is almost always used with verbs indicating motion or action, and it typically follows the verb it modifies ("stew should be cooked long and slow"). Slowly can be used in the same way ("drove slowly"), but it also is used before the verb ("The winds slowly subsided"), with adjectives formed from verbs ("the slowly sinking sun"), and in places where slow would sound odd ("turned slowly around").
so The use of the adverb so to mean "very" or "extremely" is rare in formal writing, except in negative contexts ("not so long ago") or when followed by an explaining clause ("coffee so hot that I burned my tongue"). The use of the conjunction so to introduce clauses of result ("The weather was beautiful, so we decided to go for a walk") is standard. When it introduces clauses of purpose, with the meaning "in order that" ("Be quiet so I can sleep"), it is sometimes criticized, and so that is more common in formal writing ("trying to cut spending so that the deficit will be reduced").
such Some people disapprove of using such as a pronoun ("Such was the result," "sorting out glass and newspapers and such"), but it is now standard.
sure, surely Sure and surely are both standard adverbs, but sure tends to be used informally, whereas surely is more common in formal contexts. When used as intensifiers, sure is highly emphatic and positive ("He sure wants to win this one"); surely generally expresses hopefulness or persuasive intention more than certainty ("Surely they could do it if they really tried").
while The earliest meaning of while, "during the time that" ("She liked to read while he was taking his walk"), is related to time. But while has also been a common synonym for "whereas" ("He believes the story, while I'm not convinced") and "although" ("While he's respected, he isn't actually liked") for centuries, and today these uses are absolutely standard.
whose Whose is often used to mean "of which"—that is, to refer to nonhuman things ("a palace whose furnishings were splendid"). Though some critics believe that "of which" must be used in such situations ("a palace of which the furnishings are splendid"), whose has been used in this way for centuries by good writers and is completely acceptable.
you You is often used in addressing the reader directly ("You should always keep an extra set of keys"), a familiar style that has become very common in recent decades. One can be used instead for the sake of a formal or impersonal tone ("One should always keep an extra set of keys"), but it's used less often than it used to be. The two normally shouldn't be mixed in a single piece of writing. You is also used for addressing a completely indefinite audience—for example, when "You have to consider the long-term effects" is the precise equivalent of the passive "The long-term effects have to be considered."
aggravate Aggravate is used chiefly in two meanings: "to make worse" ("aggravated her shoulder injury," "Their financial condition was aggravated by the fall of the stock market") and "to irritate, annoy" ("The president was aggravated by the Russians' response"), but the latter is rarely seen in writing. However, aggravation usually means "irritation," and aggravating almost always expresses annoyance.
ain't Ain't is avoided in formal writing. But it is widely used in ordinary speech and writing to catch attention and to emphasize ("The fact is, he just ain't going to cooperate"). It often occurs in standard phrases ("If it ain't broke, don't fix it"), and it's used among friends in relaxed conversation ("I ain't gettin' any younger," "There ain't a chance of getting tickets tonight").
amount, number Number is normally used with nouns that can form a plural and can be used with a numeral ("a large number of orders"). Amount is mainly used with nouns that denote a substance or concept that can't be divided and counted up ("the annual amount of rainfall," "a large amount of money"). The use of amount with count nouns ("a substantial amount of job offers") is usually regarded as an error.
apt, liable, likely Both liable and apt, when followed by an infinitive, are used nearly interchangeably with likely ("liable to get tired easily," "The roads are apt to be slippery," "It's likely to be hot tomorrow"). In writing, liable is generally used only for situations risking an undesirable outcome ("If you speed, you're liable to be caught").
as, as if, like Like has been used as a conjunction in the sense of as ("just like I used to do") and as if ("It looks like it will rain") for nearly 600 years. However, these uses are often criticized, and it is safer to use as or as if instead ("just as I used to do," "It looks as if it will rain").
as far as "As far as clothes, young people always know best" is an example of as far as used as a preposition, with the meaning "as for" or "regarding." This use, which developed from the traditional conjunction use ("As far as clothes are concerned, . . ."); is very common in speech but is usually regarded as an error in writing.
awful, awfully Awful has long been acceptable in the meanings "extremely objectionable" ("What an awful color") and "exceedingly great" ("an awful lot of money") in speech and casual writing. Both awful and awfully are used as intensifiers in informal speech and writing ("I'm awful tired," "He's awfully rich") but are rare in more formal contexts.
between, among It is often said that between can only be used when dealing with two items ("between the two trees"), and that among must be used for three or more items ("strife among Croats, Serbs, and Muslims"). However, between is actually quite acceptable in these latter cases, especially when it applies to one-to-one relationships ("constant disagreements between the three of us").
but There is no reason why sentences should not begin with but ("But now we come to the difficult part"). But, as a preposition with the meaning "except," may be followed by a pronoun in the either the nominative or the objective case ("No one but I [me] could solve the puzzle"), but the objective case is always used when it is part of a noun phrase serving as an object ("He looked at everyone but her"). A less common use of but is as an adverb meaning "only" ("Had they but known, they could have saved themselves").
can, may Can, unlike may, is used to indicate the power to do something ("He can lift 200 pounds"). To denote possibility, both can and may are used ("The problem can [may] be solved in two different ways"). To denote permission to do something, can is common in informal speech ("She's told her kids they can stay up till 10:00 tonight"), but may is preferred in writing. However, in negative statements, cannot and can't are more common than may not ("The generals can't act unless the president tells them to").
comprise The sense of comprise meaning "to compose or constitute" ("the branches that comprise our government") rather than "to include or be made up of" ("Our government comprises various branches") has been attacked as wrong, for reasons that are unclear. Until recently, it was used chiefly in scientific and technical writing; today it has become the most widely used sense. But it still may be safer to use compose or make up instead.
data Data today has a meaning independent of its use as the plural form of datum. It is used in one of two ways: as a plural noun (like earnings) that takes a plural verb and plural modifiers (such as these or many) but not cardinal numbers ("These data show that the recession ended in March"); or as an abstract mass noun (like information) that takes a singular verb and singular modifiers such as this, much, or little ("The data on the subject is plentiful"). Both constructions are standard, but the plural form is more common in print. Avoid using signs of the singular (like this or much) when you use a plural verb.
different from, different than Both of these phrases are standard; however, some people dislike different than and will insist that, for example, "different than the old proposal" be changed to "different from the old proposal." Different than works best when a clause follows ("very different in size than it was two years ago").
disinterested, uninterested Disinterested has two meanings: "unbiased" ("They chose a disinterested observer to serve as a judge") and "not interested" ("She seems completely disinterested in the whole idea"), which is also the basic meaning of uninterested. Though this second use of disinterested is common, it is often criticized, and uninterested can always be substituted.
due to When the due of due to is clearly an adjective ("absences due to the flu"), no one complains about the phrase. When due to is used as a preposition ("Due to the holiday, our office will be closed"), some people object, so in formal writing an alternative such as because of or owing to may be safer.
each Each presents several problems of agreement with verbs and pronouns. When the pronoun each is the subject, it normally takes a singular verb ("Each is unique"). When the adjective each modifies a singular noun subject, the singular verb is used ("Each car is equipped with radar"). Each of is followed by a plural noun or pronoun ("Each of the kittens was given to a different family," "Each of us asked one question"). When the adjective each follows a plural noun subject, a plural verb and plural pronoun commonly follow ("We each have our own concerns"). Each often takes a plural pronoun in reference, sometimes to avoid saying "his or her" ("Each person in the line had to show their ticket").
each other, one another The traditional rules call for each other to be used when referring to two ("The two girls looked at each other in surprise") and one another to be used when referring to three or more ("There will be time for people to talk with one another after the meeting"). In fact, however, they are employed interchangeably.
either Either as an adjective meaning "each (of two)" is still in common use ("a path lined with large trees on either side"). In either . . . or constructions, either should be placed where it will provide parallelism; thus, rather than "The gift will be donated either to the college or the public library" should ideally be rewritten as "The gift will be donated either to the college or to the public library" or "The gift will be donated to either the college or the public library." The verb following an either . . . or construction is normally singular ("Either the car or the truck is fine"). However, when both subjects are plural, or when the first is singular and the second is plural, a plural verb is expected ("Either Maria or her parents have the keys").
every Since every normally modifies a singular noun, a singular verb usually follows ("Every page contains important new information"). When every modifies two or more nouns joined by and, the singular verb is standard ("Every man, woman, and child is going to benefit"). Every is usually followed by a singular pronoun ("Every girl at the school knows she's got to do as well as the boys," "Every dish had its proper place on the shelf"). But it may also be followed by a plural pronoun; in particular, the plural pronoun is almost always used today when the gender of the subject is unknown or mixed ("Every student was asked to write their essay on something different").
good, well Both good and well are acceptable when used to express good health ("I feel good," "I feel well"), and good may also connote good spirits ("She felt good about her performance"). However, the adverb good has been much criticized, with people insisting that well be used instead ("The orchestra played well this evening"), and this adverbial use should be avoided in writing.
he, he or she It used to be standard to use he to mean "he or she" ("Today every customer thinks he can get a better deal somewhere else"). Today this is avoided, since it seems to ignore the existence of women. Since "he or she," when repeated within a sentence or paragraph, can easily sound awkward, writers can usually rewrite their sentences to avoid it: by putting the pronouns in the plural ("All students should hand in their papers by Friday"), by addressing the reader directly ("You should hand in your paper[s] by Friday"), or by removing the pronoun altogether, perhaps by using passive voice ("All papers should be handed in by Friday"). Similar methods can be done to avoid repeating him or her, his or her, and himself or herself.
hopefully When used to mean "I hope" or "We hope" ("Hopefully, they'll reach an agreement"), as opposed to "full of hope" ("waiting hopefully for good news"), hopefully is often criticized, even though other similar sentence adverbs (such as frankly, clearly, and interestingly) are accepted by everyone. Despite the objections, this sense of hopefully is now standard and can be used freely.
I, me In formal speech and writing, such phrases as "It's me," "Susan is taller than me," "He's as old as me," "Who, me?" and "Me too" are generally accepted. In formal writing, however, it is best to use I after forms of be ("It was I who discovered the mistake") and after as and than when the first term of the comparison is the sentence's subject ("The analysts knew less than I," "Almost any college graduate could do as well as I").
i.e., e.g. These two abbreviations are sometimes confused with each other. To avoid confusion, try to remember that i.e. stands for the Latin id est, meaning "that is," and e.g. stands for exempli gratia, or "for example." Both that is and i.e. typically introduce a rewording or clarification of an immediately preceding statement or word ("the country's largest industry—i.e., steel"). Both for example and e.g. introduce one or more examples that illustrate something just mentioned ("Let's consider some of the country's largest industries—e.g., oil, banking, and steel"). In American (but not British) writing, both i.e. and e.g. are normally followed by a comma.
if Both if and whether are commonly used with such verbs as doubt, see, ask, wonder, decide, and know to introduce a noun clause ("See if they have arrived," "He asked her whether she was feeling better"); both are acceptable even in formal contexts. The use of if to mean "though" ("an interesting if questionable idea") is also common and proper. If is often followed by a subjunctive verb, especially when the clause contains a condition that is clearly hypothetical or contrary to fact ("If we could foresee the future, life would be a lot easier"). The indicative is required when the clause is clearly not hypothetical ("If he knew those facts at the time, then he's guilty of lying").
impact Impact as a verb meaning "to have an impact" came into widespread use only in the 1980s, and it is still often criticized, though it remains common in business, journalism, and politics ("worried about how this would impact our sales"). In other writing, another verb such as affect, influence, impinge on, or hit can usually be substituted.
imply, infer Infer is mostly used to mean "to conclude" and is commonly followed by from ("I infer from your comments that . . ."). Imply is used to mean "to suggest" ("The letter implies that our service was not satisfactory"). The use of infer, with a personal subject, as a synonym of imply ("Are you inferring that I made a mistake?") is best avoided.
in, into The basic distinction between these two prepositions is clear: into is used with verbs of motion ("moving into the light," "backed into a parked car"), and in is used with verbs that show location ("found the letter in the folder," "hid it in the closet"). However, in is also used idiomatically with some verbs of motion ("the tree had been split in two," "told the kids to jump in the car"), and in some cases either one may be used ("put the names into [in] the hat," "don't go in [into] the kitchen yet"). In more formal writing, however, the traditional distinction is usually observed.
irregardless Irregardless, though common in speech, is still far from being generally accepted; use regardless or irrespective instead ("They're in favor of the project, regardless of the cost").
lay, lie Though these two words have long been used as synonyms, today they are usually distinguished, especially in writing. Lay is normally transitive ("He laid down the book"), and lie is normally intransitive ("She was lying on the bed"). But they are very easy to confuse, especially because of the similar forms of their past tenses (laid, lay) and past participles (laid, lain).
less, fewer The traditional view is that less is used for matters of degree, value, or amount, and that it modifies nouns that refer to uncountable things ("less concern," "less clothing") while fewer modifies numbers and plural nouns ("fewer students," "fewer than eight trees"). However, less is actually more likely than fewer to modify plural nouns when distances, sums of money, and certain common phrases are involved ("less than 100 miles," "less than $2,000," "ten pounds, more or less") and just as likely to modify periods of time ("in less [fewer] than four hours"). But phrases such as "less bills," "less vacation days," and "less computers" should be avoided.
like, such as Though sometimes criticized, it is completely permissible to write "cities like Chicago and Des Moines." It is equally proper and slightly more formal to write "cities such as Chicago and Des Moines" or "such cities as Chicago and Des Moines."
loan Some people still object to the use of loan as a verb ("loaned me the book") and insist on lend. Nevertheless, loan is in standard use. Loan is used only literally ("loans large sums of money"), however, while lend can be used both literally ("lends large sums of money") and figuratively ("lending his parents some help when he could").
media Media is the plural of medium. In references to the mass media today, media is often used as a singular mass noun ("The media always wants a story"). But this singular use is not as common as the similar use of data, and you may want to keep media plural in your writing ("The news media have ignored the story").
myself Myself is often used in place of I or me: as subject ("Others and myself continued to express our concern"); after as, than, or like ("paying such people as myself to teach," "Other than myself, only two volunteers showed up," "A man like myself worries about these things"); and as object ("For both my wife and myself, it was a great trip"). It is often used when the person is referring to himself or herself as an object of discussion. Though these uses have been criticized, they are entirely standard.
one Using one in place of another personal pronoun (I, me, you) or to indicate a generic individual produces a formal effect ("not as helpful as one might wish," "This might strike one as a clever solution"). As a substitute for I or me, it is far more common in British English than American English.
people, persons People is commonly used when referring to an unspecified number of individuals ("People everywhere are talking about the new show"), and persons is commonly used when a definite number is specified ("reported that 86 persons were still missing"). However, the use of people where numbers are mentioned is also acceptable and much less formal ("The police questioned ten people").
per Per, meaning "for each," is most commonly used with figures, usually in relation to price ("$400 per performance"), vehicles ("25 miles per gallon," "55 miles per hour"), or sports ("15 points per game"). Avoid inserting words like a or each between per and the word or words it modifies, producing sentences like "She could type 70 words per each minute."
plus The use of plus to mean "and" ("a hamburger plus french fries for lunch") or "besides which" ("We would have been on time, but we lost the car keys. Plus, we forgot the map") is quite informal and is avoided in writing.
presently The use of presently to mean "at the present time" ("I'm presently writing a report") rather than "soon" ("He'll be with you presently"), while often criticized, is standard and acceptable.
pretty Pretty, when used as an adverb to tone down or moderate a statement ("pretty cold weather"), is avoided in formal writing, so using it in correspondence will lend an informal tone.
prior to Prior to, a synonym of before, most often appears in fairly formal contexts. It is especially useful in suggesting anticipation ("Prior to the meeting, everyone on the committee had studied the report").
proved, proven Both proved and proven are past participles of prove. Proved was once more common than proven, but today they are about equally common. As a past participle, either is acceptable ("a drug that has been proved [proven] effective"), but proven is more frequent as an adjective ("proven gas reserves").
providing, provided Although providing in the sense of "if" or "on condition that" has occasionally been disapproved, both providing and provided are in common and accepted use ("providing [provided] he finds a buyer").
real The adverb real is used interchangeably with really only as an intensifier ("a real tough job"). This use is very common in speech and casual writing, but you should not use it in anything more formal.
set, sit Set generally takes an object ("Set the lamp over there") and sit does not ("sat for an hour in the doctor's office"). But in a few cases, set lacks an object ("The sun will set soon") and sit takes an object ("She sat the child down by its grandfather").
shall, will Shall and will are generally interchangeable today in American English, but shall is often regarded as somewhat affected, and will is much more common. However, shall is more appropriate in questions to express simple choice ("Shall we go now?"), because will in such a context suggests prediction ("Will the report be ready next week?").
since The conjunction since, when used to mean "because," can occasionally create ambiguity when both this "because" sense and the alternative "from the time when" sense are meaningful in the same context ("Since the cold weather had started, he had been thinking about the expense of heating his house"). But there usually is no ambiguity ("Since it was raining, she took an umbrella") and thus no reason to avoid it.
slow, slowly Slow used as an adverb (meaning "slowly") has often been called an error, though it has been common for centuries. Slow is almost always used with verbs indicating motion or action, and it typically follows the verb it modifies ("stew should be cooked long and slow"). Slowly can be used in the same way ("drove slowly"), but it also is used before the verb ("The winds slowly subsided"), with adjectives formed from verbs ("the slowly sinking sun"), and in places where slow would sound odd ("turned slowly around").
so The use of the adverb so to mean "very" or "extremely" is rare in formal writing, except in negative contexts ("not so long ago") or when followed by an explaining clause ("coffee so hot that I burned my tongue"). The use of the conjunction so to introduce clauses of result ("The weather was beautiful, so we decided to go for a walk") is standard. When it introduces clauses of purpose, with the meaning "in order that" ("Be quiet so I can sleep"), it is sometimes criticized, and so that is more common in formal writing ("trying to cut spending so that the deficit will be reduced").
such Some people disapprove of using such as a pronoun ("Such was the result," "sorting out glass and newspapers and such"), but it is now standard.
sure, surely Sure and surely are both standard adverbs, but sure tends to be used informally, whereas surely is more common in formal contexts. When used as intensifiers, sure is highly emphatic and positive ("He sure wants to win this one"); surely generally expresses hopefulness or persuasive intention more than certainty ("Surely they could do it if they really tried").
while The earliest meaning of while, "during the time that" ("She liked to read while he was taking his walk"), is related to time. But while has also been a common synonym for "whereas" ("He believes the story, while I'm not convinced") and "although" ("While he's respected, he isn't actually liked") for centuries, and today these uses are absolutely standard.
whose Whose is often used to mean "of which"—that is, to refer to nonhuman things ("a palace whose furnishings were splendid"). Though some critics believe that "of which" must be used in such situations ("a palace of which the furnishings are splendid"), whose has been used in this way for centuries by good writers and is completely acceptable.
you You is often used in addressing the reader directly ("You should always keep an extra set of keys"), a familiar style that has become very common in recent decades. One can be used instead for the sake of a formal or impersonal tone ("One should always keep an extra set of keys"), but it's used less often than it used to be. The two normally shouldn't be mixed in a single piece of writing. You is also used for addressing a completely indefinite audience—for example, when "You have to consider the long-term effects" is the precise equivalent of the passive "The long-term effects have to be considered."
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