Phonetics: The Sound of American English (1)

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Phonetis: The Sound of American English

If you have difficulties in understanding English phonetic terms, you may find it helpful to study this material. Main phonetic terms used in description and classification of English vowel sounds in ESL materials are explained here according to the American variant of pronunciation.

English alphabet
There are 26 letters in the English alphabet: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz.

Phonemes
A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one word from another in meaning. For example, the phonemes /t/, /d/ distinguish the words "ten, den". A phoneme represents a group of closely related variants of the same speech sound, called allophones. For example, the sound /t/ is pronounced a little differently in the words "take, try, stay, lost, potato, little", but the same symbol represents these allophones in transcription: the phoneme /t/.

Vowels

In phonetic materials, the noun "vowel" has the following meanings: a vowel sound; a letter representing a vowel sound in writing. Vowels are speech sounds produced without obstructing the flow of air from the lungs, so that the breath stream passes freely through the mouth. Vowels are always voiced (i.e., the vocal cords vibrate). Syllables are formed by vowels: I [ai], me [mi:], my [mai], so [sou], lid [lid], let [let], late [leit], lord [lo:rd].

There are six vowel letters in the English alphabet: a, e, i, o, u, y. Or five, if Y is regarded as a consonant. The letter Y can represent a consonant / semivowel (yes, yard) or a vowel (mystery, try, play). Vowel letters, alone or in combinations, represent from 15 to 22 vowel sounds, depending on the way of counting. All vowel sounds together are called the vowel system. Vowel sounds are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs, and triphthongs.

Monophthongs
A monophthong consists of only one vowel sound that does not change during its articulation; i.e., it starts and ends in the same quality, and the speech organs do not change their position during its pronunciation. Monophthongs are also called simple vowels, pure vowels, or stable vowels. American linguists list from 9 to 12 monophthongs in American English, generally 11 monophthongs: [a:], [æ], [i:], [i], [e], [o:], [o], [u:], [u], [ər], [ə].

The neutral vowel sound
Transcription symbols that are generally used to represent the neutral sound are [ʌ] (caret) in stressed syllables (gun, son, undone) and [ə] (schwa) in unstressed syllables (away, reason, minus). In American ESL materials, the schwa symbol [ə] is very often used for the neutral sound in both stressed and unstressed syllables: gun [gən], son [sən], undone [ən'dən], away [ə'wei], reason ['ri:zən], minus ['mainəs]. For your information, in case your browser doesn't show these symbols, the caret looks like a triangle without a base (or turned v), and the schwa looks like inverted e.

R-colored vowels
The consonant [r] in American English is pronounced after vowels in all positions in the word: car [ka:r], card [ka:rd], cure [kyur]. The sound [r] in AmE has become part of the vowel sound [ər], so that the sound [ə:] is always used with [r] in AmE: serve [sərv], girl [gərl], burn [bərn], earn [ərn], worker ['wərkər], sugar ['shugər], courage ['kərij]. Transcription symbols for this sound may vary: [ər], [ə:r], [ur], [er], [ir]. Vowels in such combinations are called R-colored vowels.

Rhotic accent
The accents in which the sound [r] is pronounced in all positions in the word, including after a vowel in the same syllable (car [ka:r], card [ka:rd]) are called rhotic accents (for example, General American). The accents in which [r] is not pronounced after a vowel in the same syllable (car [ka:], card [ka:d]) are called non-rhotic accents (for example, British Received Pronunciation).

Diphthongs
A diphthong is a complex vowel sound that consists of two components. The first part of the diphthong is its main strong component (the nucleus); the second part is short and weak (the glide). Together, the nucleus and the glide form one vowel sound that is indivisible and forms only one syllable. Examples of one-syllable words in which there is only one vowel sound, i.e., the diphthong: [ai] ride, right, lie, buy; [au] brown, cloud; [ei] late, pray, pain, straight; [oi] toy, spoil; [ou] go, toe, phone, road, bowl, though. A diphthong is always stressed on its first main component.

Different linguistic sources list a different number of diphthongs. For example, long [i:] and [u:] may be listed as the diphthongs [iy] and [uw]. Certain vowels before [r] may be listed as diphthongs, for example, [ihr], [ehr], [uhr] (hear, care, tour). But generally, American linguists list five diphthongs in ESL materials for learners of American English: [ai] (ride, by); [au] (out, how); [ei] (take, day); [oi] (boy, boil); [ou] (go, boat, low). Vowel sounds before final voiced [r] (here, care, tour) are generally described as having diphthongal character in American English; i.e., a very short neutral sound usually appears before final [r] in such words. But the neutral sound is often lost before [r] in the middle of the word (hero, careful, tourist).

Triphthongs
A triphthong is a complex vowel sound that consists of three components. A triphthong is indivisible and forms only one syllable. A triphthong is always stressed on its first main component. Two triphthongs are usually listed in British English: [aiə] hire, fire, require; [auə] our, hour, flour. American linguists generally do not list triphthongs because the neutral sound (i.e., the third component of these triphthongs) is often lost before voiced [r] in AmE, for example, fire [fair], [fai(ə)r]; flour [flaur], [flau(ə)r]. In other cases with [aiə], [auə], these sounds are regarded as two separate vowels in two adjoining syllables, for example, di-al, qui-et, high-er; tow-el, flow-er, tow-er.

Semivowels
A semivowel, also called a semiconsonant, is a speech sound of vowel quality used as a consonant. Examples of semivowels: [w] want, well, win, work; [y] yard, yes, yield, yoga. The consonants [l], [r], [h] are sometimes called semivowels too.

The sound /ɔ/
The sound [o] is short in British English, for example, not, rock, rob, bottle, college, modern. In the same words in American English, the sound [o] is a long sound colored as [a:] and is often listed in American phonetic materials as [a:]. In some words, there are two variants of pronunciation in AmE, [o:] or [o], for example, gone, coffee, office, borrow, orange, sorry, boss, lost, Boston, want, wash, water.

Vowel length
Depending on the duration of the sound, vowels are described as long or short. Long vowels are [i:], [a:], [o:], [u:], [ər], and often [æ]. Short vowels are [i], [e], [u], [ə]. The length of one and the same vowel may change noticeably in different positions in the word. For example, vowels in stressed syllables sound longer than the same vowels in unstressed syllables. Vowels before voiced consonants sound longer than the same vowels before voiceless consonants.

The long vowel sounds are not pronounced for longer time than short vowel sounds. The terms "long", "short", and "complex" are not describing the length of time a vowel sound is said. These archaic terms are still in popular use in American classrooms. They are used to simply give a name to a vowel sound so when the sound is discussed, the name and not the sound is used.

The term long sound means the vowel sound is the same as its name. And the term short sound is when a vowel is followed by a consonant. Every vowel also makes a third sound: the schwa.

Besides long and short vowel sounds, and the schwa sound, there are some other special sounds in English that are represented by vowels called Complex Vowel sounds.

- LENGTH:
Short (/ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/)
Long (/i:/, /eɪ/, /ju/, /oʊ/, and the diphthong /aɪ/)
Complex (/u:/, /ʊ/, /ɔ/, and the diphthongs /aʊ/, /oɪ/)
Third sound (The schwa /ə/)

Duration of long sounds
Students often ask how long the long sounds are. In general, a monophthong vowel sound lasts only as long as necessary for its correct articulation. It doesn't grow stronger after it starts, and it doesn't fade out at the end. It starts and ends in the same quality. The actual time of the vowel sound duration in this or that position in a word is learned best of all by comparing it with the other vowel sounds while practicing the sounds after the recorded speaker.

Vowel Combination
A vowel combination is a combination of two or three vowels, or of a vowel and at least one consonant, that is associated with one or more specific single sounds. For example, ea has the sounds /long e/ and /long a/; ay has the sound /long a/, and igh has the sound /long i/. These vowel combinations are sometimes called digraphs, diphthongs, trigraphs, and triphthongs.

Irregular Vowels
Sometimes, the basic rules of phonics do not apply. Each of these instances must be memorized. Common examples include, but are not limited, to: IGH, -NG, ST, OW, ED, OI, OO, OUS, AU, -SION/-TION/-CION, OUGH

Consonants

In phonetic materials, the noun "consonant" has the following meanings: a consonant sound; a letter representing a consonant sound in writing. Consonants are speech sounds produced by creating an obstruction in the mouth for the air flow from the lungs. There are 20 consonant letters in the English alphabet. They represent 24 consonant sounds. Many of the consonants occur in voiced – voiceless pairs: plosives / stops [b] – [p], [d] – [t], [g] – [k]; fricatives [v] – [f], [z] – [s], [ð] – [θ], [zh] – [sh], and unpaired voiceless [h]; affricates [j] – [ch]. The rest of the consonants are sonorants: [l], [r]; nasals [m], [n], [ŋ]; semivowels [w], [y].

Digraph
A digraph is a single sound, or phoneme, which is represented by two letters. A trigraph is a phoneme which consists of three letters. However, many people will simply use the term 'digraph' generally to describe both combinations. In digraphs, consonants join together to form a kind of consonant team, which makes a special sound. For instance, p and h combine to form ph, which makes the /f/ sound as in phonemic.

Blends
When two or more letters appear together and you hear each sound that each consonant would normally make, the combination is called a blend. For instance, the word blend has two consonant blends: bl, for which you hear the sounds for both b and l, and nd, for which you hear the sounds for both n and d.

Spelling with C and G
The letter c makes two sounds—the /k/ sound and the /s/ sound. The sound of c is controlled by the letter following it. When c is followed by a consonant (except h), it makes the /k/ sound. When followed by the vowels a, o, or u, it also makes the /k/ sound. However, when followed by the vowels e, i, or y, it makes the /s/ sound. When c makes the /k/ sound, that is called its hard sound, and when it makes the /s/ sound, that is called its soft sound.

The letter g is similar, sometimes making its hard sound /g/, and other times making its soft sound /j/. However, it doesn't follow the rule as often as c. Some notable exceptions include give, get, gear, girl, and gill.

Organs of speech

Main speech organs used in the production of speech sounds: mouth, or mouth cavity / oral cavity; lips (upper lip, lower lip); teeth (upper front teeth, lower front teeth, upper molars / upper back teeth); jaws (upper jaw, lower jaw); tongue (tip / apex of the tongue, front / blade of the tongue, center / middle of the tongue, back of the tongue, root of the tongue, sides of the tongue); alveolar ridge / upper gum ridge / teethridge; roof of the mouth (hard palate, soft palate with the uvula); nose, or nasal cavity; throat (pharynx, larynx); vocal cords; lungs.

Active speech organs
Movable organs of speech that are actively used during the production of speech sounds are called articulators or active speech organs. Active organs of speech are the lips, the lower jaw, the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the vocal cords, the lungs.

Passive speech organs
Fixed speech organs that are touched (or almost touched) by movable speech organs during articulation are called passive speech organs or points of articulation. Passive organs of speech are the teeth, the alveolar ridge, the upper jaw, the hard palate.

Articulation
There are several main features by which English vowels and their articulation are usually described in linguistic materials. The two most important features refer to the place of articulation. They are the height of the tongue and the part of the mouth where the tongue is raised for the articulation of a particular vowel sound. The other features are lip shape, vowel length, tenseness. The diphthongs are described according to their first main component.

The height of the tongue
The height of the position of the tongue refers to how high the front, middle, or back of the tongue is raised during articulation. Vowels are described as high, mid, or low depending on the height of the tongue during their articulation. The terms "close, mid-open, open" are also used; they refer to to how much the mouth is open during articulation. High (close) vowels are [i:], [i], [u:], [u]. Mid (mid-open) vowels are [e], [ə], [ər]. Low (open) vowels are [æ], [a:], [o:], [o].

- HEIGHT: Tongue Position in the mouth:
High (/i:/, /ɪ/, /ɚ/, /u:/, /ʊ/)
Middle (/eɪ/, /ɛ/, /ʌ/, /ə/, /oʊ/)
Low (/æ/, /ɑ:/, /ɔ/)

The place in the mouth
For the purpose of describing the sounds, the mouth cavity is divided into three parts: front, central, back. Depending on where in the mouth they are formed, vowels are described as front, central, or back. Front vowels are [i:], [i], [e], [æ]. Central vowels are [ə], [ər]. Back vowels are [u:], [u], [a:], [o:], [o].

- BACKNESS: Far front or back the tongue is in the mouth:
Front (/i:/, /ɪ/, /eɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/)
Central (/ɚ/, /ʌ/, /ə/, /ɑ:/)
Back. (/u:/, /ʊ/, /oʊ/, /ɔ/)

The shape of the lips
The shape of the lips in the production of vowels may be more or less rounded (and/or protruded) or unrounded, i.e., spread or in a neutral position. Depending on whether the lips are rounded or not, vowels are described as rounded or unrounded. Rounded vowels are [o:], [o], [u:], [u]. Unrounded vowels are [i:], [i], [e], [ə], [ər], [æ], [a:].

- LIP POSITION: Whether the lips are rounded (O-shape) or spread (no rounding) when the sound is being made:
Unrounded (/i:/, /ɪ/, /eɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ɚ/, /ʌ/, /ə/, /ɑ:/
Rounded (/u:/, /ʊ/, /oʊ/, /ɔ/)

Degree of tenseness
Additionally, vowels are described as tense or lax. Tenseness refers to the muscular tension of the mouth organs during articulation. Generally long vowels are tense, and short vowels are lax. Stressed vowels are more tense than the unstressed vowels. Vowels before voiceless consonants are more tense than those before voiced consonants. It is important to stress that compared with Russian vowel sounds, all English vowels may be regarded as tense.

- TENSENESS: Refers to the amount of muscular tension around the mouth when creating vowel sounds:
Lax ( /i/ and /u/, /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/, /ʊ/)
Tense (/i:/, /eɪ/, /ɚ/, /u:/, /ɔ/, /oʊ/, and the diphthongs /aɪ/, /aʊ/, /oɪ/)

Phonetics: The Sound of American English (1)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (2)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (3)

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