Phonics refers to a method for teaching speakers of English to read and write their language. It involves connecting the sounds of spoken English with letters or groups of letters (e.g that the sound /k/ can be represented by c, k, ck or ch spellings) and teaching them to blend the sounds of letters together to produce approximate pronunciations of unknown words. In this way, phonics enables people to use individual sounds to construct words. For example, when taught the sounds for the letters t, p, a and s, one can build up the words "tap", "pat", "pats", "taps" and "sat."
There are four methods of teaching phonetics:
(1) Synthetic phonics - an approach associated with the teaching of reading in which phonemes (sounds) associated with particular graphemes (letters) are pronounced in isolation and blended together (synthesised). For example, children are taught to take a single-syllable word such as cat apart into its three letters, pronounce a phoneme for each letter in turn /k, æ, t/, and blend the phonemes together to form a word.
(2) Analytical phonics - an approach associated with the teaching of reading in which the phonemes associated with particular graphemes are not pronounced in isolation. Children identify (analyse) the common phoneme in a set of words in which each word contains the phoneme under study. For example, teacher and pupils discuss how the following words are alike: pat, park, push and pen.
(3) Analogy phonics - a type of analytic phonics in which children analyse phonic elements according to the phonograms in the word. A phonogram, known in linguistics as a rime, is composed of the vowel and all the sounds that follow it, such as –ake in the word cake. Children use these phonograms to learn about “word families” for example cake, make, bake, fake.
(4) Embedded phonics - an approach to the teaching of reading in which phonics forms one part of a whole language programme. Embedded phonics differs from other methods in that the instruction is always in the context of literature rather than in separate lessons, and the skills to be taught are identified opportunistically rather than systematically.
Phonics - methods of teaching
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (3)
Phonetis: The Sound of American English
Articulatory Anatomy
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (1)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (2)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (3)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (2)
Phonetis: The Sound of American English
Vowels
Monophthongs
Monophthongs are a sound of a single vowel1. Monophthongs - front vowels
A front vowel is produced with a forward shift of the tongue from its neutral or rest position:
/i:/ & /ɪ/, as in eat & pin.
/eɪ/ & /ɛ/, as in eight & extra;
/æ/ , as in at.
2. Monophthongs - central vowels
A central vowel is produced with the tongue in its neutral or rest position:
/ʌ/ & /ə/, as in under & asleep;
/ˈɚ/ & /ɚ/, as in earth & farmer *.
* /ˈɚ/ (in stressed syllable) is the same that /ˈʌr/, and /ɚ/ (in unstressed syllable) is the same that /ər/.
3. Monophthongs - back vowels
A back vowel is produced with a backward shift of the tongue from its neutral or rest position:
/u:/ & /ʊ/, as in drew & foot;
/oʊ/ & /ɔ/, as in over & all (BrE) *;
/ɑ:/ , as in clock or in all (AmE).
* The sound /ɔ/ is short in British English (BrE). In the same words in American English (AmE), the sound /ɔ/ is a long sound colored as /ɑ:/.
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are two vowels produced consecutively in the same syllable by moving the articulators smoothly from the position of one to the other:
/aɪ/ & /aʊ/;
/oɪ/.
Consonants
Manner
Manner of articulation refers to how the sound is produced and the way in which the airstream is modified as it passes through the vocal tract.1. Manner - stop
A stop is a consonant characterized by:
(1) complete obstruction of the outgoing aurstream by the articulation,
(2) a build of intraoral air pressure, and
(3) a release.
Stops - voiceless & voiced
/p/ & /b/ (bilabial)
/t/ & /d/ (linguaalveolar)
/k/ & /g/ (linguavelar)
2. Manner - fricative
A fricative is a consonant produced by forcing the breath stream through a constriction formed by articulation in the vocal tract.
Fricatives - voiceless & voiced
/f/ & /v/ (labiodental)
/θ/ & /ð/ (linguadental)
/s/ & /z/ (linguaalveolar)
/ʃ/ & /ʒ/ (linguapalatal)
/h/ & none (glottal)
3. Manner - affricate
An affricate is a consonant characterized as having both a fricative and a stop manner of production.
affricate - voiceless & voiced
/tʃ/ & /dʒ/ (linguaalveolar)
4. Manner - nasal
Nasal refers to a consonant produced with complete closure in the oral cavity along with a lowered velum to allow airflow through the nasal cavity.
Nasal - voiceless & voiced
/m/ (nilabial)
/n/ (linguaalveolar)
/ŋ/ (linguavelar)
5. Manner - liquids
Liquid is a generic label used to classify two English approximant consonants, /r/ and /l/.
Liquids - voiceless & voiced
/l/ (Linguaalveolar)
/r/ (linguapalatal)
6. Manner - glide
A glide is a consonant characterized by a continue, gliding motion of the articulators into the following vowel; also referred to as a semi-vowel, e.g., /j/ and /w/.
Glides - voiceless & voiced
none & /w/ (bilabial)
none & /j/ (linguapalatal)
Place
Place of articulation refers to which articulators are involved in the production of a particular sound.1. Place - bilabial
Bilabial refers to a speech sound, such as /b/ produced by contact of the upper and lower lips.
Bilabial - voiceless & voiced
/p/ & /b/ (stop)
none & /m/ (nasal)
none & /w/ (glide)
2. Place - labio-dental
A labiodental consonant is one that is produced by the lower lip contacting the upper front teeth.
Labio-dental - voiceless & voiced
/f/ & /v/ (fricative)
3. Place - lingua-dental
A linguadental consonant is produced with the tongue contacting the teeth.
Lingua-dental - voiceless & voiced
/θ/ & /ð/ (fricative)
4. Place - lingua-alveolar
Linguaalveolar refers to a consonant produced with the tongue contacting the upper alveolar ridge.
Lingua-alveolar - voiceless & voiced
/t/ & /d/ (stop)
/s/ & /z/ (fricative)
/tʃ/ & /dʒ/ (affricate)
none & /n/ (nasal)
none & /l/ (liquid)
5. Place - lingua-palatal
A linguapalatal consonant is produced with the tongue contacting the hard palate.
Lingua-palatal - voiceless & voiced
/ʃ/ & /ʒ/ (fricative)
none & /r/ (liquid)
none & /j/ (glide)
6. Place - lingua-velar
Linguavelar refers to a consonant produced with the tongue contacting the velum.
Lingua-velar - voiceless & voiced
/k/ & /g/ (stop)
/ŋ/ (nasal)
7. Place - glotal
Glotal is a place of articulation referring to a consonant that is produced by completely or partially constricting the glottis.
Glottal - voiceless & voiced
none & /h/ (fricative)
Voice
Voicing refers to whether the vocal folds are vibrating during a production of a particular consonant.1. Voice - voiced
A voiced sound is produced with vibration of the adducted vocal folds in the larynx.
/b/ & /d/ (stop)
/g/
/v/ & /ð/ (fricative)
/z/ & /ʒ/
/dʒ/ (affricate)
/m/ & /n/ & /ŋ/ (nasal)
/l/ & /r/ (liquid)
/w/ &/j/ (glide)
2. Voice - voiceless
A voiceless sounds are consonants produced without vibration of the vocal folds.
/p/ & /t/ (stop)
/k/
/f/ & /θ/ (fricative)
/s/ & /ʃ/
/h/
/tʃ/ (affricate)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (1)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (2)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (3)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (1)
Phonetis: The Sound of American English
If you have difficulties in understanding English phonetic terms, you may find it helpful to study this material. Main phonetic terms used in description and classification of English vowel sounds in ESL materials are explained here according to the American variant of pronunciation.
English alphabet
There are 26 letters in the English alphabet: Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz.
Phonemes
A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one word from another in meaning. For example, the phonemes /t/, /d/ distinguish the words "ten, den". A phoneme represents a group of closely related variants of the same speech sound, called allophones. For example, the sound /t/ is pronounced a little differently in the words "take, try, stay, lost, potato, little", but the same symbol represents these allophones in transcription: the phoneme /t/.
Vowels
In phonetic materials, the noun "vowel" has the following meanings: a vowel sound; a letter representing a vowel sound in writing. Vowels are speech sounds produced without obstructing the flow of air from the lungs, so that the breath stream passes freely through the mouth. Vowels are always voiced (i.e., the vocal cords vibrate). Syllables are formed by vowels: I [ai], me [mi:], my [mai], so [sou], lid [lid], let [let], late [leit], lord [lo:rd].
There are six vowel letters in the English alphabet: a, e, i, o, u, y. Or five, if Y is regarded as a consonant. The letter Y can represent a consonant / semivowel (yes, yard) or a vowel (mystery, try, play). Vowel letters, alone or in combinations, represent from 15 to 22 vowel sounds, depending on the way of counting. All vowel sounds together are called the vowel system. Vowel sounds are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs, and triphthongs.
Monophthongs
A monophthong consists of only one vowel sound that does not change during its articulation; i.e., it starts and ends in the same quality, and the speech organs do not change their position during its pronunciation. Monophthongs are also called simple vowels, pure vowels, or stable vowels. American linguists list from 9 to 12 monophthongs in American English, generally 11 monophthongs: [a:], [æ], [i:], [i], [e], [o:], [o], [u:], [u], [ər], [ə].
The neutral vowel sound
Transcription symbols that are generally used to represent the neutral sound are [ʌ] (caret) in stressed syllables (gun, son, undone) and [ə] (schwa) in unstressed syllables (away, reason, minus). In American ESL materials, the schwa symbol [ə] is very often used for the neutral sound in both stressed and unstressed syllables: gun [gən], son [sən], undone [ən'dən], away [ə'wei], reason ['ri:zən], minus ['mainəs]. For your information, in case your browser doesn't show these symbols, the caret looks like a triangle without a base (or turned v), and the schwa looks like inverted e.
R-colored vowels
The consonant [r] in American English is pronounced after vowels in all positions in the word: car [ka:r], card [ka:rd], cure [kyur]. The sound [r] in AmE has become part of the vowel sound [ər], so that the sound [ə:] is always used with [r] in AmE: serve [sərv], girl [gərl], burn [bərn], earn [ərn], worker ['wərkər], sugar ['shugər], courage ['kərij]. Transcription symbols for this sound may vary: [ər], [ə:r], [ur], [er], [ir]. Vowels in such combinations are called R-colored vowels.
Rhotic accent
The accents in which the sound [r] is pronounced in all positions in the word, including after a vowel in the same syllable (car [ka:r], card [ka:rd]) are called rhotic accents (for example, General American). The accents in which [r] is not pronounced after a vowel in the same syllable (car [ka:], card [ka:d]) are called non-rhotic accents (for example, British Received Pronunciation).
Diphthongs
A diphthong is a complex vowel sound that consists of two components. The first part of the diphthong is its main strong component (the nucleus); the second part is short and weak (the glide). Together, the nucleus and the glide form one vowel sound that is indivisible and forms only one syllable. Examples of one-syllable words in which there is only one vowel sound, i.e., the diphthong: [ai] ride, right, lie, buy; [au] brown, cloud; [ei] late, pray, pain, straight; [oi] toy, spoil; [ou] go, toe, phone, road, bowl, though. A diphthong is always stressed on its first main component.
Different linguistic sources list a different number of diphthongs. For example, long [i:] and [u:] may be listed as the diphthongs [iy] and [uw]. Certain vowels before [r] may be listed as diphthongs, for example, [ihr], [ehr], [uhr] (hear, care, tour). But generally, American linguists list five diphthongs in ESL materials for learners of American English: [ai] (ride, by); [au] (out, how); [ei] (take, day); [oi] (boy, boil); [ou] (go, boat, low). Vowel sounds before final voiced [r] (here, care, tour) are generally described as having diphthongal character in American English; i.e., a very short neutral sound usually appears before final [r] in such words. But the neutral sound is often lost before [r] in the middle of the word (hero, careful, tourist).
Triphthongs
A triphthong is a complex vowel sound that consists of three components. A triphthong is indivisible and forms only one syllable. A triphthong is always stressed on its first main component. Two triphthongs are usually listed in British English: [aiə] hire, fire, require; [auə] our, hour, flour. American linguists generally do not list triphthongs because the neutral sound (i.e., the third component of these triphthongs) is often lost before voiced [r] in AmE, for example, fire [fair], [fai(ə)r]; flour [flaur], [flau(ə)r]. In other cases with [aiə], [auə], these sounds are regarded as two separate vowels in two adjoining syllables, for example, di-al, qui-et, high-er; tow-el, flow-er, tow-er.
Semivowels
A semivowel, also called a semiconsonant, is a speech sound of vowel quality used as a consonant. Examples of semivowels: [w] want, well, win, work; [y] yard, yes, yield, yoga. The consonants [l], [r], [h] are sometimes called semivowels too.
The sound /ɔ/
The sound [o] is short in British English, for example, not, rock, rob, bottle, college, modern. In the same words in American English, the sound [o] is a long sound colored as [a:] and is often listed in American phonetic materials as [a:]. In some words, there are two variants of pronunciation in AmE, [o:] or [o], for example, gone, coffee, office, borrow, orange, sorry, boss, lost, Boston, want, wash, water.
Vowel length
Depending on the duration of the sound, vowels are described as long or short. Long vowels are [i:], [a:], [o:], [u:], [ər], and often [æ]. Short vowels are [i], [e], [u], [ə]. The length of one and the same vowel may change noticeably in different positions in the word. For example, vowels in stressed syllables sound longer than the same vowels in unstressed syllables. Vowels before voiced consonants sound longer than the same vowels before voiceless consonants.
The long vowel sounds are not pronounced for longer time than short vowel sounds. The terms "long", "short", and "complex" are not describing the length of time a vowel sound is said. These archaic terms are still in popular use in American classrooms. They are used to simply give a name to a vowel sound so when the sound is discussed, the name and not the sound is used.
The term long sound means the vowel sound is the same as its name. And the term short sound is when a vowel is followed by a consonant. Every vowel also makes a third sound: the schwa.
Besides long and short vowel sounds, and the schwa sound, there are some other special sounds in English that are represented by vowels called Complex Vowel sounds.
- LENGTH:
Short (/ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/)
Long (/i:/, /eɪ/, /ju/, /oʊ/, and the diphthong /aɪ/)
Complex (/u:/, /ʊ/, /ɔ/, and the diphthongs /aʊ/, /oɪ/)
Third sound (The schwa /ə/)
Duration of long sounds
Students often ask how long the long sounds are. In general, a monophthong vowel sound lasts only as long as necessary for its correct articulation. It doesn't grow stronger after it starts, and it doesn't fade out at the end. It starts and ends in the same quality. The actual time of the vowel sound duration in this or that position in a word is learned best of all by comparing it with the other vowel sounds while practicing the sounds after the recorded speaker.
Vowel Combination
A vowel combination is a combination of two or three vowels, or of a vowel and at least one consonant, that is associated with one or more specific single sounds. For example, ea has the sounds /long e/ and /long a/; ay has the sound /long a/, and igh has the sound /long i/. These vowel combinations are sometimes called digraphs, diphthongs, trigraphs, and triphthongs.
Irregular Vowels
Sometimes, the basic rules of phonics do not apply. Each of these instances must be memorized. Common examples include, but are not limited, to: IGH, -NG, ST, OW, ED, OI, OO, OUS, AU, -SION/-TION/-CION, OUGH
Consonants
In phonetic materials, the noun "consonant" has the following meanings: a consonant sound; a letter representing a consonant sound in writing. Consonants are speech sounds produced by creating an obstruction in the mouth for the air flow from the lungs. There are 20 consonant letters in the English alphabet. They represent 24 consonant sounds. Many of the consonants occur in voiced – voiceless pairs: plosives / stops [b] – [p], [d] – [t], [g] – [k]; fricatives [v] – [f], [z] – [s], [ð] – [θ], [zh] – [sh], and unpaired voiceless [h]; affricates [j] – [ch]. The rest of the consonants are sonorants: [l], [r]; nasals [m], [n], [ŋ]; semivowels [w], [y].
Digraph
A digraph is a single sound, or phoneme, which is represented by two letters. A trigraph is a phoneme which consists of three letters. However, many people will simply use the term 'digraph' generally to describe both combinations. In digraphs, consonants join together to form a kind of consonant team, which makes a special sound. For instance, p and h combine to form ph, which makes the /f/ sound as in phonemic.
Blends
When two or more letters appear together and you hear each sound that each consonant would normally make, the combination is called a blend. For instance, the word blend has two consonant blends: bl, for which you hear the sounds for both b and l, and nd, for which you hear the sounds for both n and d.
Spelling with C and G
The letter c makes two sounds—the /k/ sound and the /s/ sound. The sound of c is controlled by the letter following it. When c is followed by a consonant (except h), it makes the /k/ sound. When followed by the vowels a, o, or u, it also makes the /k/ sound. However, when followed by the vowels e, i, or y, it makes the /s/ sound. When c makes the /k/ sound, that is called its hard sound, and when it makes the /s/ sound, that is called its soft sound.
The letter g is similar, sometimes making its hard sound /g/, and other times making its soft sound /j/. However, it doesn't follow the rule as often as c. Some notable exceptions include give, get, gear, girl, and gill.
Organs of speech
Main speech organs used in the production of speech sounds: mouth, or mouth cavity / oral cavity; lips (upper lip, lower lip); teeth (upper front teeth, lower front teeth, upper molars / upper back teeth); jaws (upper jaw, lower jaw); tongue (tip / apex of the tongue, front / blade of the tongue, center / middle of the tongue, back of the tongue, root of the tongue, sides of the tongue); alveolar ridge / upper gum ridge / teethridge; roof of the mouth (hard palate, soft palate with the uvula); nose, or nasal cavity; throat (pharynx, larynx); vocal cords; lungs.
Active speech organs
Movable organs of speech that are actively used during the production of speech sounds are called articulators or active speech organs. Active organs of speech are the lips, the lower jaw, the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the vocal cords, the lungs.
Passive speech organs
Fixed speech organs that are touched (or almost touched) by movable speech organs during articulation are called passive speech organs or points of articulation. Passive organs of speech are the teeth, the alveolar ridge, the upper jaw, the hard palate.
Articulation
There are several main features by which English vowels and their articulation are usually described in linguistic materials. The two most important features refer to the place of articulation. They are the height of the tongue and the part of the mouth where the tongue is raised for the articulation of a particular vowel sound. The other features are lip shape, vowel length, tenseness. The diphthongs are described according to their first main component.
The height of the tongue
The height of the position of the tongue refers to how high the front, middle, or back of the tongue is raised during articulation. Vowels are described as high, mid, or low depending on the height of the tongue during their articulation. The terms "close, mid-open, open" are also used; they refer to to how much the mouth is open during articulation. High (close) vowels are [i:], [i], [u:], [u]. Mid (mid-open) vowels are [e], [ə], [ər]. Low (open) vowels are [æ], [a:], [o:], [o].
- HEIGHT: Tongue Position in the mouth:
High (/i:/, /ɪ/, /ɚ/, /u:/, /ʊ/)
Middle (/eɪ/, /ɛ/, /ʌ/, /ə/, /oʊ/)
Low (/æ/, /ɑ:/, /ɔ/)
The place in the mouth
For the purpose of describing the sounds, the mouth cavity is divided into three parts: front, central, back. Depending on where in the mouth they are formed, vowels are described as front, central, or back. Front vowels are [i:], [i], [e], [æ]. Central vowels are [ə], [ər]. Back vowels are [u:], [u], [a:], [o:], [o].
- BACKNESS: Far front or back the tongue is in the mouth:
Front (/i:/, /ɪ/, /eɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/)
Central (/ɚ/, /ʌ/, /ə/, /ɑ:/)
Back. (/u:/, /ʊ/, /oʊ/, /ɔ/)
The shape of the lips
The shape of the lips in the production of vowels may be more or less rounded (and/or protruded) or unrounded, i.e., spread or in a neutral position. Depending on whether the lips are rounded or not, vowels are described as rounded or unrounded. Rounded vowels are [o:], [o], [u:], [u]. Unrounded vowels are [i:], [i], [e], [ə], [ər], [æ], [a:].
- LIP POSITION: Whether the lips are rounded (O-shape) or spread (no rounding) when the sound is being made:
Unrounded (/i:/, /ɪ/, /eɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ɚ/, /ʌ/, /ə/, /ɑ:/
Rounded (/u:/, /ʊ/, /oʊ/, /ɔ/)
Degree of tenseness
Additionally, vowels are described as tense or lax. Tenseness refers to the muscular tension of the mouth organs during articulation. Generally long vowels are tense, and short vowels are lax. Stressed vowels are more tense than the unstressed vowels. Vowels before voiceless consonants are more tense than those before voiced consonants. It is important to stress that compared with Russian vowel sounds, all English vowels may be regarded as tense.
- TENSENESS: Refers to the amount of muscular tension around the mouth when creating vowel sounds:
Lax ( /i/ and /u/, /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/, /ʊ/)
Tense (/i:/, /eɪ/, /ɚ/, /u:/, /ɔ/, /oʊ/, and the diphthongs /aɪ/, /aʊ/, /oɪ/)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (1)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (2)
Phonetics: The Sound of American English (3)