American English: Grammar Speaks

Expressing conditions in adverb clauses: if-clauses

It's time for us to get to know If. If is just two letters, an i and an f. But If is very powerful. If live in your imagination.

You know how people like to talk about hypothetical situations? That means possibilities we invent in our imaginations. For instance... let me imagine something you might do. I know... maybe you will click on one of the links in this page. All right? That's the situation... the condition. That's I'm imagining.

Well, what would be the result? That's where if comes in.

If you click on one of the links in this page, you'll stop reading.

And of course,

If you don't click on one of the links in this page, you'll keep reading.

If gives a condition that will produce a certain result... all hypothetical, of course.

Usually it's good idea to stay away from using future verb forms in Adverb Clauses.

And I'll talk to you about other words like whether and unless.

Showing direct contrast: while and whereas

Now my favorite... While has two meanings. OK?

The first meaning tells you about a time relationship:

While my husband and I were camping in the wilderness, a bear got into our tent.

All right, so in that sentence, while means during the time that.

And now for the second meaning. Well. While can contrast ideas, can show that something is the opposite of something else:

My husband likes to go camping in the wilderness for vacation, while I prefer to visit big cities such as London.

And, you know, you could also use whereas instead of while; it means the same thing, but whereas is pretty uncommon. You'll run into it in reading more often than speaking, and even then not too often.

My husband likes to be in the wilderness, whereas I like to visit big cities.

Notice that these clauses use a comma even when the Adverb Clause comes second in the sentence.

Expressing contrast (unexpected result): Using even though

I was here all the time even though you coldn't see me.

Life is full of suprises, isn't it? We just never know what's going to happen when we get up in the morning. Ah, yes... surprises, unexpected things. That's what Even Though express.

Let's say Oscar had a ticket to a championship soccer game. What is the expected result?

Because Oscar had a ticket, he went to the game.

But, sometimes things don't work out as we expect them to. That's where Even Though come in.

Even though you had a ticket, you did NOT go to the game.

What? It was a championship game. It was sold out! You had a ticket, but you didn't go? That's a surprising, unexpected result.

Even Though is a lot of fun to use. Well, at least I think so, but I like surprises.

Using adverb clauses to show cause and effect

You've been using because ever since you started using English. You know, it's one of those words everybody needs right from the beginning because people are always talking about what causes what.

Tarik is happy because his family is here.

There you go. But there are a couple of other useful ways to tell someone what causes a result.

Now that Olga has a job, she can pay her rent.

That means because Olga has a job now. It implies that Olga didn't have a job a little while ago.

And how about this one?

Since Al doesn't have a car, he has to depend on his friends to drive him places.

Well, that means because Al doesn't have a car.

And just a little quick reminder, don't forget that since can aslo show time relationships:

I've know Maria since I was a child.

You know, lots of English words have more than one meaning, but you already know that.

Adverb Clauses

Adverb Clauses

Lot of times we like to show the relashionships between ideas, and do it in the same sentence.

Well, here are three simple sentences:

Tom sat down.
He turned on the light.
He wanted to read.

Now, we can guess the relationships between those ideas, but we can communucate a whole lot more clearly if we can actually say what the relationships are:

After Tom sat down, he turned on the light because he wanted to read.

Oh, it's important to be able to communicate the relashionship of one idea to another.

Do you remember Time Clause? Her full name is Adverb Clause of Time. Adverb Clause of Time is the one who begins with words like when, while, or after, and before. The following sentence sound familiar:

When the phone rang, the baby woke up.

But, you know, there are other kinds of Adverb Clauses... clauses that begin with words like because, or even though, if; words that show cause and effect, or maybe contrast ideas, or express conditions.

Bur for starters, I think I'd like to do a little refresher on form. Adverb Clauses are flexible. Adverb Clauses move around. Adverb Clauses can come at the beginning of a sentence or at the end, usually without much difference.

When adjective clauses come first, you need to stick in a comma.
But you don't need a comma when adjective clauses come after the main clause.

Adverb Clause of Time

Time Clauses

A clause is a structure that has a subject and a verb. Time Clause begins with a word like when followed by a subject and a verb. For example, When the phone rang is an Adverb Clause. The Time Clause full name is Adverb Clause of Time.

Just connect the Adverb Clause with a simple sentence, and we'are in business!

When the phone rang, I answered it.
When the phone rang, the baby woke up.

Time Clause show time relationships. Time Clause let people know that something happened before something else, or at the same time, or after something else. Things like that.

I say things like...

I brushed my teeth before I went to bed.
After I went to bed, I turned out the light.

Here are some of the words Time Clause use to introduce itself:

after	before	when
while	as	until
since	as soon as	by the time

Using whose in adjective clause

You use whose in questions; to ask about possession.

Whose camera is that? Is it yours?

And you use whose in Adjective Clauses, too!

The people whose picture I took smiled and waved at the camera.

I took their picture at a birthday party. Be sure to notice that I didn't say:

The people who I took their picture smiled and waved at the camera.

No, it's:

The people whose picture I took smiled and waved at the camera.

Using preposition in adjective clause

You know, words like in, on, at, to are Prepositions. All those little words. Well, those little words are used in Adjective Clauses, too. Like this.

The flower is beautiful. I'm looking at it.

Becomes...

The flower which I'm looking at is beautiful.

Or...

The flower that I'm looking at is beautiful.

Or...yes! you can omit the object pronoun here!

The flower ø I'm looking at is beautiful.

That's great! Oh!I have to tell you about this funny thing English does with Prepositions in Adjective Clauses. Sometimes Prepositions come at the beginning of the clause. That's pretty strage. Here's what I mean.

The flower at which I'm looking is beautiful.

Very formal. You'll see that structure in academic writing, business reports, maybe formal invitations. But you won't hear it much in everyday English.

Well... Prepositions are just little words, but very important especially in Adjective Clauses.

Singular and plural verbs in adjectives clauses

Sometimes learners have a problem with Subject-Verb Agreement in Adjective Clauses.

Like this:

The student who sit next to me is from Indonesia.

So, do you see the problem? Right. Student is singular. Who refers to a singular noun, student. So the verb needs to be singular.

The student who sits next to me...

Or, in the plural,

The students who sit near me are from Indonesia.

Singular subject, singular verb. Plural subject, plural verb. That's nothing new, is it? That's how English works! And it's just something many learners need to pay a little special atention to.

Using which and that in adjective clause

Now, let's look at which in Adjective Clauses. Well, that means we're going to talk about things, not people. Which refers to things.

The boy which found my wallet...?

No. You can't use which with people.

But look this:

The wallet OXXSXXV
The wallet which he found was full of money.

Or you can say:

The wallet OXSXXV
The wallet that he found was full of money.

There's no difference between which and that in those sentences.

And,you can omit the object pronoun:

The wallet OXSXXV
The wallet ø he found was full of money.

That's pretty neat! Okay. Now let's look at using which and that as subject pronouns. Here are the two sentences we want to combine:

The bus goes downtown. It stops at this corner.

The bus whi SXXV
The bus which stops at this corner goes downtown.
The bus wSXXV
The bus that stops at this corner goes downtown.

Which or That, it doesn't matter (though native speakers seem to prefer that here). But you have to use one of them. You CAN'T omit a subject pronoun from an Adjective Clause.

Using who, whom, and that in adjective clauses

We are going to show you how who and whom work in Adjective Clauses.

The women were nice. They visited our school.

We want to combine those sentences, using Adjective Clauses. They is a subject pronoun. Well, who is a subject pronoun too, in Adjective Clauses.

The women who visited our school were nice.

Great! So far so good. But notice: when you use who, you don't need they anymore!

Now whom.

The women were nice. I met them yesterday.

Them is an object pronoun. Well whom is too, in Adjective Clauses.

The women whom I met yesterday were nice.

Now notice something: You don't need them if you use whom.

Ready to do some more Adjective Clauses?

Okay. Let's combine these next two sentences:

I thanked the boy. He found my wallet.

We can use who:

I thanked the boy who found my wallet.

Or, listen to this!: we can use That.

I thanked the boy that found my wallet.

Now let's combine these next two sentences:

The men were kind. I met them.

We can use whom:

The men whom I met were kind.

Or we can use that:

The men that I met were kind.

Or... now, here's where you need to pay attention, we can omit, yes omit (that means "leave out" or "not use") an object pronoun in an Adjective Clause! Can you believe that?

The men ø I met were kind.

That's what native speakers usually do. They omit an object pronoun when they can.

And let me tell you this: native speakers don't like to use whom a lot. It's one of those "get all dressed up in your best clothes" words: very formal.

Adjective Clause

Adjective Clause

Adjective Clause is very common. You already use it. Like this:

The computer you're using has a microphone.

Well, maybe it doesn't. That's not the point. The point is this: That sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verbs:

the computer has

And...

you're using

Adjective Clause is that second one. "you're using." That's an Adjective Clause.

The computer you're using has a microphone.

Is is okay to say:

The computer that you're using has a microphone?

Yes. No difference.

Is it okay to say:

The computer who you're using has a microphone?

No way!

So how does all this work? Stay tuned. That's what all this is about.

Adjective describe nouns. Remember? long hair, dark hair, curly hair.

So? Adjective Clauses describe nouns, too. Big deal.

Adjectives and Adjective Clauses names are similar but, you know they're different.

Adjectives come in front of nouns.

I like polite people.

Well, Adjetive Clauses come after nouns.

I like people who are always polite to others.

And... get this... an Adjective Clause has a subject and a verb. That's why it is called a "clause". That's what a clause is: a structure with a subject and a verb.

Here's the main clause:

I like people...

An here's the Adjective Clause:

...who are always polite to others.

See that? Who is the subject and are is the verb of the Adjective Clause.

Noun Clause

Noun Clause are very useful:

1. You use it to express thoughts:

I think you are vey nice person.

2. Or you use it to express your hopes:

I hope you enjoy this information.

3. Or express thinks you know or don't know:

I don't know where you are right now.

4. Or to report what people say:

Your friend told me that your english is very good!

Noun Clause has a subject and a verb. That's where it gets the name Clause. And it acts like a Noun, so it's called Noun Clause.

A noun can be the object of a verb. Here is a Noun Object:

S           V                    O
I don't know your name.

And here is a Noun Clause as the object of the verb:

S           V                          O
                                   S           V
I don't know what your name is.

- It can start with a question word, like where:

I don't know where you live.

- It can also start with if:

I don't know if you are a student or a teacher.

- It can even start with that:

I hope that you'll find this information helpful.

Noun clauses that begin with a question word

Noun clauses that begin with a question word

We will tell you how Information Question and Noun Clause are different and how they are the same.

Now, Information Questions begin with question words:

Where is Mr. Lee?

Noun Clauses begin with question words too, but Noun Clauses just don't ask questions!

I don't know where Mr. Lee is.

But remember, you use question word order in an Information Question.

Where did Mr. Lee go?

You DON'T use question word order in a Noun Clause:

I don't know where Mr. Lee went.

Information Question and Noun Clause are different.

Except! Information Question and Noun Clause are the same when the question word is the subject.

Here's a Question:

Who invented the computer?

And here's a Noun Clause:

I don't know who invented the computer.

Noun clauses with who, what, whose + be

Noun clauses with who, what, whose + be

Learners sometimes have a little trouble with word order in Noun Clauses. That's especially true if the verb is Is.

Look at this question:

Who is your teacher?

There's a noun following the verb is: teacher. It's the subject of the question.

And the subject of a question comes in front of a verb in a Noun Clause! Like this:

I don't know who your teacher is.

Now let me ask you:

Who is listening to us right now?

In that question, Who is the subject.

So in a Noun Clause the word order is the same as in the question:

I don't know who is listening to us.

The same situation happens with what and whose when using the verb be in Noun Clauses.

Noun clauses that begin with if or weather

Noun clauses that begin with if or weather

Let's show you how a Yes/No Question turns into a Noun Clause that starts with IF:

Do horses sleep standing up?

I don't know if horses sleep standing up.

You can add Or Not if you want:

I don't know if horses sleep standing up or not.

Or use Whether, it means the same thing as IF:

I don't know whether horses sleep standing up.

Here is another Yes/No Question that turns into a Noun Clause:

Do fish close their eyes to sleep?

I've often wondered if fish close their eyes to sleep.

Noun clauses that begin with that

Noun clauses that begin with that

I believe that people are the same the word over.

We have cultural differences and language differences. But we all smile when we're happy . A smile is universally human. And we need food and sleep. We love, laugh, cry, work, grow old... the world over:

I hope that people over the word live in peace.
I know that there have always been wars, but
I predict that someday humans will find better ways to solve their differences.

Do you see how useful That-Clauses is in expressing beliefs, hopes, thoughts? That's the That-Clause job!

Here is a good list of verbs that That-Clauses follow.

Notice how most of them express "mental activity"; that means things that go on inside your mind: thoughts, guesses, predictions, dreams. Look the list over. It has a lot of useful words.

You can omit That. It doesn't really mean anything:

I believe we're all one family.

See? No That after believe. People omit That from a That-clause a lot, especially in speaking.

Common verbs followed by That-clauses:

assume that
agree that
believe that
conclude that
decide that
demostrate that
discover that
doubt that
dream that
fear that

feel that
figure out that
find out that
forget that
guess that
hear that
hope that
Know that
imagine that
indicate that

learn that
notice that
observe that
predict that
presume that
presend that
prove that
read that
realize that
recall that

recognize that
regret that
remember that
reveal that
say that
show that
suppose that
suspect that
teach that
think that
understand that

That-clause is also usefull in expressing feelings!

I'm happy that we have this time together.
I'm pleased that you came to visit me.

but remember, you can omit that:

I'm sorry you have to leave soon.
I'm sure we'll see each other again sometime.

One last thing. You can also use That-Clauses after it is true or it is a fact... very useful:

It's true that the population of the earth is exploding.
It's a fact that there are more than 6 billion people on earth.

Common expressions followed by That-Clauses:

be afraid that
be amazed that
be angry that
be ashamed that
be astounded that
be aware that
be certain that
be convinced that

be delighted that
be disappointed that
be fortunate that
be furious that
be glad that
be happy that
be horrified that
be impressed tha

be lucky that
be positive that
be pleased that
be proud that
be sad that
be sorry that
be shocked that
be sure that

be surprised that
be terrified that
be thrilled that
be worried that

It is true that
It is a fact that

Do hourses sleep standin up?
I don't really know, but I think so.

So have a lot of jobs in English, and one of them is to substitute for That-Clause. "Substitute" means So takes his place. When we said "I think so," this meant:

I think that horses sleep standing up.

As you see, you can use So, instead of a whole, long That-Clause.

So is really useful in conversation.

Quoted and Reported Speech

Quoted and Reported Speech

Quoted Speech

You use Quotation Marks in writting to show that you are quoting someone else's exact words:

Somebody, let's say, Bob says: "Learning English is fun". Now how do you write Bob's exact words? Well, start with He said with comma (He said,), then add Quotation Marks ("), then his exact words, and finally add a period at the end of the sentence followed by Quotation Marks ("):

He said, "Learning English is fun."

Reported Speech

He said... She said... Somebody told me... We report what other people say all the time. That's where Reported Speech come in.

Let's say, Bob says: "I am thirsty". Now what did he say? Let's use Reported Speech:

He said that he was thirsty.

Notice three things:

1- You don't use Quotation Marks in Reported Speech.
2- You don't use the speaker's exact words. Often you change pronouns. We used he instead of I when we reported Bob's words.
3- You often change the verb to a different tense. We changed is to was.

So, this is Quoted Speech:

Bob said, "I am thirsty."

And this is Reported Speech:

Bob said (that) he was thirsty.

That can be omitted in Reported Speech.

Verb Forms in Reported Speech

We want to show you how verb forms are used in Reported Speech:

Bob: I need a new watch.
Bob said he needed a new watch.

Bob: I lost my old one.
He said he had lost his old one.

Bob: I'm going to buy a new one.
He said he was going to buy a new one.

Bob: I'll get one tomorrow.
He said he would get one tomorrow.

Bob: I can't go shopping today because I don't have time.
He said he couldn't go shopping today because he didn't have time.

We put Bob's verb into a past form when was reported his words. Do you have to do that? No. It's okay to say:

Bob said he needs a new watch
He said he will get one tomorrow.

And so forth. You don't need to change the verbs when you report them soon after they were said.

But if they were said quite a while ago, then you usually change the verbs to a past form, especially in formal writing, but often in informal speaking, too.

Reported Speech uses reporting verbs. The most common ones are said, told, and asked:

Said is followed immediately by a that-clause.

Bob said that he was thirsty.

Told is followed immediately by a noun or pronoun, then a that-clause.

Bob told us that he was thirsty.

Asked is used to report questions:

Bob asked if you were a student.

And there are some other common reporting verbs, like want to know, wonder, and inquire. The verbs answer and reply are often used to report replies.